wealthy families have private tutors. A Chinese Those who succeed at the triennial examination work, written before the Christian era, speaks of are further promoted, and in three years they are the "ancient system of instruction," which required examined for the doctor's degree, to which only that every town and village should have a common thirty can be admitted at one time. From among school. The day-schools are so well attended, that these doctors are chosen the members of the Impethe fees paid by each scholar are extremely small. rial College of Hamlin, after an examination held In large towns, they have night-schools for the in the Royal Palace. These persons form the body benefit of those who are obliged to labor through from which the ministers of the Emperor are the day. The Chinese first teach children a few generally chosen. of the principal characters, (as the names of the chief Cultivated talent is the main source of consideobjects in nature or art,) just as we do the letters, ration and rank among the Chinese, who hold in by rude pictures; then follows a summary of in- contempt the vulgar pretensions of mere fashion or fant erudition, conveyed in lines of three words. wealth. The latter has some influence, but comThey soon after proceed to the "four books," mands less respect than age or talents. Officers which contain the doctrines of Confucius, and of government, who, with rare exceptions, are sewhich, with the "Five Classics," subsequently lected because of their abilities, constitute the arisadded, are, in fact, says Mr. Davis, the "Chinese tocracy-and they, content with solid power, aim Scriptures." Writing is taught by tracing the cha- at no external display; and a corresponding tone is racters with their hair pencil, on transparent pa- thus given to the habits of the people. "The goper placed over the copy, and children commence vernment," observes Mr. Davis, seems to conwith very large characters. In the education of sider that its own stability is best secured by children, the Chinese very properly attach much placing the greatest talent, if not the purest virtue, importance to the habit of attention, and boys are in offices of trust." warned against "repeating with the mouth, whilst All governments should be administered by men the mind is thinking of something else." They of talents, but unfortunately for the world, they are also taught (and very justly) never to be satis- are not always men of probity and virtue; and unfied with an indistinct understanding of what they less those who govern possess integrity as well as are learning, but to ask for explanations; and al- talents, there is imminent danger of national deways to make a personal application to themselves moralization. Profligate men are dangerous in the of the precepts which they learn. Education and ratio of their abilities; and while the government intelligence are extensively diffused through the of China acts wisely in bestowing offices and honors lower classes; and it is said that among the almost upon men of genius and learning, we trust it is not countless millions that constitute the empire, nearly indifferent to moral character. The subordination every man can read and write sufficiently for the of the military to the civil authority-the offices common purposes of life. Of the sixteen discour- and rewards conferred upon educated men, in preses which are periodically read to the people, the ference to military chieftains, speak strongly in eighth inculcates the necessity of a general ac- behalf of Chinese civilization and sagacity. The quaintance with the penal laws, which are printed people are not divided into factions, to follow the purposely in a cheap form. We think the plan is lead and serve the purposes of military aspirants, a good one, and that it savors very little of a des- nor are there any Pretorian guards to dispose of potic spirit. If men were made acquainted with the government of the Empire at auction. The the prohibitions of law, they would not be so apt to Chinese have long since learned, that military reincur the penalty; and while it is just to punish, it nown has too frequently proven the ignis fatuus is equally just and more wise to prevent, if practi- of mankind; and that popular generals, cloaking cable, the necessity of inflicting punishment. their unchastened ambition under the disguise of The object of the government seems to be to im- patriotism, have generally been more prone to part the knowledge already possessed by the Chi- usurp power than to reform its abuses. The gonese, to as large a number as possible, without vernment does not attempt to exterminate the passeeking to extend the bounds of knowledge; and sion of ambition; on the contrary, it endeavors to this may be one cause of the stationary character divert the minds of aspiring men from the thoughts of their institutions. Every principal city is fur- of bloodshed and the battle-field to books, and ennished with halls of examination. The students courages them to seek eclat, fame and power, along who succeed in their own district at the annual ex- the noiseless path of literary pursuits. This phiamination, are ranked as Sewtsae, or bachelors, lanthropic and wise policy has tended to promote and, according to their attainments, are draughted internal tranquillity, and to impart increased stafor farther advancement, until they become fitted bility to the political institutions of the country. for the triennial examination, held by an officer "One of the most remarkable national pecuspecially deputed from the Hamlin College, at Pe- liarities of the Chinese," observes Sir George king. The papers consist of moral and political Staunton, "is their extraordinary addiction to letessays, on texts selected from the sacred books. 'ters, the general prevalence of literary habits among

VOL. VII-19

The

A good action goes not beyond the doors; a bad one is carried a hundred leagues.

What is told in the ear is often heard a hundred miles off.

No duns outside, and no doctors within. sence of sickness and debt.)

(Ab

To stop the hand is the way to stop the mouth. Carelessness gives temptation to dishonesty. No medicine is the safe medium in physic. Better be a dog in peace than a man in anarchy. Letters and husbandry-the two principal professions.

Dig a well before you are thirsty.

Sweet words are poison; bitter words physic. (Flattery and reproof.)

the middling and higher orders, and the very honor- [ able preeminence which, from the most remote period, has been universally conceded to that class which is exclusively devoted to literary pursuits." Their regard for agriculture is surpassed by their love of literature, which occupies the highest rank among them. Next to literature is agriculture, then manufactures, and lastly commerce. writings of Confucius, and those of other moralists, occupy the first rank in Chinese literature; then comes Chinese history, which is followed by biographies. The history of China, from the earliest period to the Mongul dynasty, fills three hundred When the pool is dry, the fish will be seen. volumes and a biographical work called "Sing-(When accounts are settled, the balance of profits poo," contains one hundred and twenty volumes. will appear.) They have a statistical work which gives minute details relative to the population, geography, revenues, &c., of every province in the Empire, in two hundred and forty volumes; a collection of plays in two hundred volumes, besides innumerable commentaries on the writings of Confucius, moral tales, &c. One of the emperors caused a reprint to be made of all the standard works throughout China; in five years 168,000 volumes were completed, and it was believed that the whole would extend to 600,000 volumes. Their literature is not only voluminous, but it is entirely exempt from taxation, and very cheap. Mr. Davis says three or four volumes of any ordinary work of the octavo size, may be had for a sum equivalent to two shil-vantageous features of their character," observes lings sterling. Mr. Davis, "as mildness, docility, industry, peaceableness, subordination, and respect for the aged, are accompanied by the vices of specious insincerity, falsehood, with mutual distrust, and jealousy”— vol. 1, p. 243. He thinks, however, that the Chinese have, upon the whole, been “under-esti

The gem cannot be polished without friction, nor man perfected without adversity.

The fish dwell in the depth of the waters, and the eagles in the sides of Heaven; the one, though high, may be reached with the arrow, and the other, though deep, with the hook; but the heart of a man at a foot distance, cannot be known”— vol. ii, p. 161.

Notwithstanding their devotion to literature, and the excellence of their proverbs, the Chinese can scarcely be considered a moral people. "The ad

Among their other moral works, the Chinese have collections of aphorisms, of which they are very fond; and we subjoin a few, because they tend to illustrate the real character and condition of the people. "Unless the laws be executed even on the im-mated on the score of their moral attributes;" that perial kindred, they will not be obeyed.

it is astonishing that the Chinese at Canton are no

The best thing in governing is example; the worse than they really are; and that as colonists, the next, impartial rigor. Chinese have a very high character for intelliRight should be preferred to kindred, (in patro-gence, industry, and general sobriety. Poverty is nage.) no reproach among them,-and they have but little Those who cannot sometimes be unheeding (or respect for those who have nothing but wealth to deaf) are not fit to rule. recommend them to notice. The two things which A wife can be answerable for no crime; the re- they most respect are, the claims of venerable old sponsibility rests with the husband.

Forbearance is a domestic jewel.

age, and station, derived, not from intrigue, but from personal merit. The moral and political ad

Parents' affection is best shown by teaching their vantages possessed by the Chinese, have been atchildren industry and self-denial.

tributed by Sir George Staunton, "to the regard paid to the ties of kindred; to the sobriety, industry, and intelligence of the lower classes; to the nearly total absence of feudal rights and privileges;

Let every man sweep the snow from before his own doors, and not busy himself about the frost on his neighbor's tiles. The man who combats himself, will be happier the equal distribution of landed property; to the inthan he who contends with others.

disposition of government to engage in schemes of

The drunkard's fault is not the wine's, but his foreign warfare and ambition; and to a system of penal laws, the most clearly defined, comprehen

own.

A truly great man never puts away the simpli- sive and business-like, of any, at least among city of a child. Asiatics."

Lookers on may be better judges of the game than the players.

No people in the world hold agriculture in such high esteem as the Chinese. One of their most

distinguished emperors was taken from the plough | sists of pulse, greens, and other vegetables, obto sit on the throne; another found out the art of tained during the dry winter months." Rice will draining several low countries and conveying the probably continue always to be the staple article of water by canals to the sea, and besides this wrote diet among the Chinese. "The chief thing they several books on husbandry; and many others wish and work for is rice. Their domestic acevinced their zeal for this pursuit, by making laws counts are entirely regulated by the quantity of specially for its encouragement. The Emperor rice consumed; their meals according to the numVen-ti, who reigned one hundred and seventy-nine ber of the bowls of it boiled; and their exertions years before the birth of Christ, perceiving that his according to the quantity wanted. Every substicountry had been impoverished by wars, deter- tute for this favorite food is considered meagre, mined to persuade his subjects to cultivate their and indicative of the greatest wretchedness"-vol. lands, by the example of ploughing with his own 1, p. 311. It is singular that the Chinese should hands the land contiguous to his palace. This is make their wine out of rice, when grapes succeed thought to be the origin of the practice which now very well in that climate. "The tobacco plant," exists. The Emperor goes every spring in a so- says Mr. Davis," seems to be grown nearly everylemn manner to plough a few furrows, in order to where, but has different degrees of strength, varystimulate the husbandmen by his example, which ing probably according to soil and climate. To is followed by the mandarins and great officers of the north, it is of a pale color and sold in the leaf, the court. In a country where the Emperor is which is reduced into a coarse powder by the purregarded as the father of his people, and the foun- chaser. To the south, it is said to owe its occatain of instruction, the honors paid to agriculture sional reddish color to being steeped in a solution must have a powerful influence. "The same of opium. It is cut into fine shreds for use, by countenance and example which the Emperor af- means of a plane applied to the edges of a quantity fords in person to the production of the principal of the leaves strongly compressed.' In Barrow's materials of food, are given," Mr. Davis states, travels he remarked, that every Chinese female, "by the Empress to the cultivation of the mul- from the age of eight or nine years, wears, as an berry and the rearing of silk-worms-the sources appendage to her dress; a small silken purse or whence they derive their chief substance for cloth-pocket to hold tobacco and a pipe. ing-and the care of which, for the most part, The mechanical contrivances of the Chinese for comes under the female department. In the ninth irrigating land, are represented to be highly ingemoon, the Empress proceeds, with her principal nious; and they are also acquainted with the value ladies, to sacrifice at the altar of the inventor of of lime as a manure. The Chinese husbandman the silk manufacture; and when that ceremony is always steeps the seeds he intends to sow in liquid concluded, they collect a quantity of the mulberry manure, until they swell and germination begins to leaves which are devoted to the nourishment of appear; and, in short, he understands his business the imperial depot of silk-worms. Various other very well, without any instructions on agricultural processes connected with the same business are chemistry from Chaptal or Davy. gone through, as heating the cocoons in water, winding off the filament, &c.; and so ends the ceremony"-vol. 1, p. 292.

There are, as has been already stated, very few horses in China-and the few cattle they have, rely for subsistence on what they can find upon waste The Chinese think the mulberry is in perfection lands, that have not been improved by any kind of for all silk-making purposes in about three years. artificial manuring. The great object of Chinese They strive to obtain the greatest quantity of industry and perseverance, is the production of young and healthy leaves without fruit, and there- food for man alone. Their labor is, however, often fore do not allow the trees to exceed a certain age deprived of its adequate reward, in consequence of and height. Cocooneries are, according to Bar- long continued dry weather, or the ravages of row, placed "generally in the centre of each plan- locusts, which are thought to be more destructive tation, in order that they may be removed as far when very heavy rains have been followed by a as possible from every species of noise; expe-long drought.

rience having taught them that a sudden shout, or the Agriculture and the wages of labor are so conbark of a dog, is destructive of the young worms."nected, that an examination into the one naturally Great precautions are used in regulating the tem- suggests the consideration of the other. In China perature of the apartments, and in keeping them clean and quiet.

the ordinary wages of labor are said to be equivalent to sixpence a-day. The money price of labor Among the agricultural productions of China, depends upon the cost of the conveniences and necotton, rice, sugar and tobacco deserve to be men- cessaries of life, and the demand for labor. The tioned, and of these, rice is, of course, the most real recompense of labor is not to be estimated by highly esteemed. The first crop is gathered by the amount of money paid to the laborer, but its the last of June or beginning of July, and the se- worth in buying the common conveniences and necond in November. The third annual crop con- cessaries of life; not by the number of pence, but

by what the laborer can purchase with them. Du- has lowered the rate of interest and the rate of ring our Revolution, a day's labor might have profits generally. If the abundance of money commanded fifty or one hundred dollars in conti- tends to lower interest, why should not density of nental money—and, judging by the nominal sum, population tend to lower wages? Can any one beinstead of its exchangeable value, one would pro-lieve that if the population of the United States nounce that the laborer would soon earn a fortune, was one or two hundred millions, instead of sevenwhen, in fact, his continental dollars would hardly teen or eighteen, that wages would be as high as pay for a dinner. Fortunately for the Chinese la- they are now, and have been for the last ten or borer, he does not receive his sixpence in continen-twenty years?

tal paper, or depreciated paper of any sort, but in When the agriculture, commerce and manufachard money, which is more valuable in China and tures of a country are flourishing, the demand for India than in Europe or America. The value of labor increases, and wages rise: but when agriculthe precious metals in different countries, is influ- ture, &c. languish, the demand for labor is weakenced by their distance from the mines of America: ened, and wages fall. Bank paper is not the only hence gold and silver are worth more in England or chief cause of high wages, though some imagine than in Mexico or Peru; more in Russia than in that they are as closely united as the Siamese England; and yet more in China than in any part twins, and that low wages are only heard of in hardof Europe. This subject is ably and fully ex- money countries like China and India. Many adplained by Professor Tucker of this State, in his mirers of a paper currency have regarded the banklate work on "Money and Banks." Adam Smith ing system of Scotland as a beacon, to light the did not explain the circumstances which rendered path of all statesmen who are desirous of seeing gold and silver so valuable in China, but he observes that "In China, a country much richer than any part of Europe, the value of the precious metals is much higher than in any part of Europe."

The density of population in China tends also to enhance the value of its currency. While, therefore, wages in China may be nominally low, it does not follow that they are really so. Wages are nominally higher in England than in France; but the provisions, &c. necessary for the subsistence of the laborer, are so much lower in France than in England, that Mr. Bulwer, in describing the condition of France, says, "the earnings of the laborer are one-third more in proportion than in England;" and that "the comforts of the great mass of the French people are, to say the least, as great as those of our (English) laborers, and upon the whole, their condition is better."

the enterprise of their country invigorated, and its industry more liberally rewarded. When Smith wrote his "Wealth of Nations," he estimated the price of labor in Edinburgh and its vicinity at tenpence a-day.-(Book 1st, ch. viii.) "At a few miles distance it falls to eight pence, the usual price," he says," "of common labor through the greater part of the low country of Scotland." He adds, that "oatmeal supplies the common people in Scotland with the greatest and the best part of their food." The banking system had been adopted in Scotland before Smith's work was published; but it is proper to state, that the "Wealth of Nations" was laid before the public more than half a century ago, and it is likely the condition of the Scotch laborer has been since much ameliorated. We will then refer to other nations where Banks exist, and where the rates of wages have been asA country may possess a great accumulation of certained within a late period. In Sweden bills capital, and yet the rate of wages be lower in that of the nominal value of nineteen cents are issued, country than in another which has not so much and "the daily wages of a skilled agriculturist are wealth. England has more money than the United seven pence or eight pence; while the unskilled States, but wages are higher here than in England, obtain no more than three pence or four pence, and because our country is thriving more rapidly than board themselves. Agriculturists in the southern England. In an extensive country such as ours, provinces live upon salt fish and potatoes: in the where the population is sparse, the supply of la-northern provinces porridge and rye-bread form bor small, and the demand great, wages are high: their food." The following are the rates of wages on the other hand, in a country very densely popu- in the Netherlands: "South Holland, laborers three lated like China, the supply of labor is great in pro- pence to four pence per day with board; North Holportion to the demand, and wages are compara- land, twenty pence per day without board; Anttively low. There laborers have multiplied faster werp, five pence per day without board; West than employments, and the market is overstocked. Flanders, ninety-six to one hundred and four shilIn China the competition on the part of the labor- lings per year with board." The Bank of the ers is infinitely greater than among employers, Nethertherlands was established in 1814, with a while the converse proposition is true of the United capital of five millions of florins, and in 1819 the States. The rate of interest is ordinarily low in capital was doubled.* The Bank of France has a England and in Holland; and why so? Because capital of ninety millions of francs, and within two each country possesses a great accumulation of or three years other banks of circulation have been capital, and the competition among money-lenders

* M'Culloch.

66

established, one of which is at Havre, by charter | labor." Compared with Ireland, China," says granted in August, 1837. In that year, the paper the London Quarterly Review," is a terrestrial currency of France was estimated at fifty millions paradise."

paper was black, and the letters white. This at length led to the improved invention of wooden stereotype blocks, on which the characters were cut in relief, as at present, and the effect thereby reversed, the paper page remaining white, and the characters being impressed in ink."

of dollars, and it is believed to be more now. The We have referred to the wages of labor in Scotfollowing are the rates of wages: "Calais, com- land, Sweden, the Netherlands, France, &c., to mon laborers, seven-and-a-halfpence per day, with show that high wages and paper-money are not board and without dwelling; Boulogne, five pence linked together. Wages may be high or low, per day, with board and without dwelling; Nantes, whether the currency is composed of paper or of eightpence per day, without board and without the precious metals. Which of these two kinds dwelling; Marseilles, four pence to seven pence per of currency is best-which tends most to enhance day, with board and without dwelling." The food and sustain the wages of labor, are questions which in some districts" consists of rye-bread, soup made we do not intend to moot. of millet, cakes made of Indian corn, now and then But we have something to say of Chinese insome salt provisions and vegetables, rarely, if ever, genuity and manufactures. The art of printing butcher's meat." In others "wheaten bread, soup was practised in China during the tenth century of made with vegetables, and a little grease or lard our era. Mr. Davis says-" History states that twice a-day, potatoes or other vegetables; but sel- the first essay in printing was to transfer the pages dom butcher's meat." The foregoing statement from stone blocks, on which the writing had been of the rates of wages in Sweden, the Netherlands engraved, a process by which the ground of the and France, was derived from Porter's Progress of the Nations, and Wade's History of the Middle and Working Classes. Unenviable as is the situation of the French laborer, we have already stated, upon the authority of Mr. Bulwer of the House of Commons, that in France the earnings of the laborer are "one-third more" than in England; With regard to paper, he observes. "The date and that the comforts of the great mass of the of the invention of paper seems to prove that some French people are, "to say the least, as great as of the most important arts connected with the those of our own laborers, and, upon the whole, progress of civilization, are not extremely ancient their condition is better." The same writer says, in China. In the time of Confucius they wrote The independent agricultural laborer of England, on the finely pared bark of the bamboo, with a is unable to get more than an average allowance of style; they next used silk and linen, which explains seventeen ounces of bread daily, and four ounces why the character chy, paper, is compounded of of bacon weekly.” Ireland has had as many as fifty that for silk. It was not until A. D. 95, that pabanks at one time; and "in no country perhaps," per was invented. The materials which they use says Sir Henry Parnell, "has the issuing of paper in the manufacture are various. A coarse yellowmoney been carried to such an injurious excess as ish paper, used for wrapping parcels, is made from in Ireland." And what shall we say of the rice straw. The better kinds are composed of the peasantry of that country, many of whose gallant and liber, or inner bark of a species of morus, as well as liberty-loving sons have come hither to earn a of cotton, but principally of bamboo"-vol. ii, p. 211. living, and enjoy the blessings of our free institu- The attractive power of the loadstone has been tions? What can the Irish laborer say of his high known to the Chinese for ages, but its property wages-his plentiful supply of bread and meat-his of communicating polarity to iron was for the first clean cabin and comfortable repose? Nothing, be- time noticed in a Chinese dictionary, in A. D. 121. cause he is a stranger to these things. "In Ire- Under the head of loadstone was this definition: land," said Dr. Fisk, (Travels in Europe,) " even "A stone with which a direction can be given to the healthy and the young were ragged and dirty, the needle." The Chinese appear to have long and their cabins were the most wretched I ever possessed a very intimate practical knowledge of saw. I thought I saw the most cheerless dwellings metallurgy. In carving ivory they are unsurin Italy that mortals could well inhabit, but they passed. "Their skill and industry," observes Mr. did not compare with those of Ireland." From the Davis, "are not less shown in cutting the hardest report of the commissioners appointed in 1835, to materials, as exemplified in their snuff-bottles of inquire into the condition of the laboring classes in agate and rock-crystal, which are hollowed into perIreland, it appears that out of a population of eight fect bottles of about two inches in length, through millions, one-fifth part has not, in ordinary seasons, openings in the neck not a quarter of an inch in a sufficiency of potatoes to eat, to say nothing of diameter; but more than this, their crystal bottles "Hundreds," said Waldron, a are inscribed on the inside with minute characters, Connaught farmer, "would think it good wages to so as to be read through the transparent substance. be made sure of one good meal of potatoes a-day China has been long celebrated for her silk and for themselves and their families in return for their satin manufactures. Owing to the great distance

bread or meat.