to the Aztecs by the name of octli, but under the rule of the Spaniards the name was replaced by that of pulque," which to this day forms the favorite drink of the lower classes. Only some of the many kinds of maguey in New Spain were used for the manufacture of pulque, which was made from the plant when about ten years old. On approaching the time of blossoming the heart of the plant was cut out, after which the cavity gradually began to fill with the juice. This was removed two or three times every day as long as sap continued to flow-generally sap for four months 12. and the average yield amounted to about one hundred and twenty gallons for every plant. In an earthen vessel, or more often in a skin, it was then exposed to fermentation, which begins after thirty-two to thirty-six hours, though this process is often effected within several hours by adding some well fermented pulque. According to the care and skill used in its manufacture there are different qualities of this liquor, but nearly always it is repulsive to the unaccustomed palate,13 though it possesses, when pure, good wholesome properties. Adulteration, however, was practised even before the conquest, and was continued under the Spanish rule, although prohibited, especially if its intoxicating qualities were increased thereby.14

Occasionally the sale of pulque was entirely forbidden,15 as after the riot in Mexico in 1692; but later the prohibition was removed, as before narrated, owing perhaps in part to the decrease of revenue which it

11 Pulque, or pulcu, is a word of Chilian origin, according to Clavigero, who adds that it is difficult to explain how it was transmitted to Mexico. Storia Mess., ii. 221.

12 The flow of sap sometimes lasts only a few weeks; occasionally, however, as long as six months. Payno, Memoria sobre el Maguey, 56.

13

Especially on account of its smell, which, as some presume, may be caused by the skin vessels used in fermentation and transport.

By cédula of August 24, 1529, Puga, Cedulario, 70, and repeated subse

quently in other laws. Recop. de Ind., ii. 197 et seq.

15 The viceroy on that occasion asked the opinion of the professors of the university whether its use should be abolished. The faculty recommended such a measure. Informe que la Real Universidad hase, 1-17, Mexico, 1692, a curious document full of Latin quotations and written in a confused style.

PULQUE AND MESCAL.

609

entailed. In accordance with the usual policy, the sale of an article of such extensive consumption had been monopolized, the government granting to one individual the exclusive right to sell pulque to the thirtysix establishments allowed in the city of Mexico for that purpose. The amount paid for it almost doubled between 1669 and 1763,16 but this by no means indicates the real extent of the consumption, for during the eighteenth century the fraudulent manufacture of pulque and other beverages, chiefly adulterated with unwholesome roots, assumed great dimensions. A number of cédulas and orders were issued both in Spain and Mexico to suppress the abuses," but with so little result that, in 1763, the contract was not renewed, the government taking charge of its sale, and ten years later, the net profits derived therefrom exceeded 930,000 pesos annually.18

Of Aztec origin, like the pulque, is the sugar made of the sap of the maguey by condensation; but its manufacture decreased after the introduction of the sugar-cane. In the second half of the eighteenth century the juice was also more freely employed in the distillation of a brandy called mescal.20 This branch, however, was little developed, owing to the efforts of the Spanish government to protect the industry of the mother country. Medicinal properties have also been attributed to the plant," but it does not appear to have come into general use for this purpose. In their

16 In 1669 it was $66,000 against $128,500 in 1763. Fonseca and Urrutia, Hist, Real. Hac., iii. 344, 422. Mancera, in Instrucc. Vireyes, 298, indicates that the amount in 1671 and 1672 was $92,850 annually.

17 In 1755 a special justice was appointed for that purpose, Órdenes de la Coróna, MS., i. 50-9, and in 1760 it was even under consideration to place the matter in charge of the acordada. Reales Cédulas, MS., i. 76-7. See also Órdenes de la Corona, MS., i. 64–5, 67–8; Revilla Gigedo, Real Cédula of 1753, 1-32, 1-39.

18 Tables with details are given in Fonseca and Urrutía, Hist. Real Hac, iii. 423-4; they differ essentially from those given by Payno. Memoria sobre el Maguey, 94-7.

19 Sacan de este licor unos panes pequeños de azúcar,' though not as white nor sweet as that of sugar-cane. Motolinia, Hist. Ind., 244.

20 In 1792 the duties derived from mezcal amounted to over $24,000. Queipo, 109-10.

21 See Humboldt, Essai Pol., ii. 422; Payns, Memoria sobre el Maguey, 40–7. HIST. MEX., VOL. III. 39

natural state the leaves served for roofing, while the fibres were manufactured into cloth, cords, slings, sandals, and paper.

22

Other products, unknown to the Spaniards on their arrival, were the cacao and the vanilla, the first of of them being made into a favorite beverage of the Aztecs under the name of chocolatl, the modern chocolate. It was chiefly grown in the regions south and south-east of Mexico, but its cultivation decreased gradually, and the want was mainly supplied, as at present, by importation from other countries. The vanilla, however, was for a number of years almost exclusively obtained from New Spain, where its cultivation was confined to the intendencias of Vera Cruz and Oajaca.23

It was only natural that the Spaniards after establishing their dominion in New Spain should make efforts to raise also those plants to which they had been accustomed in the old world and in the Antilles. Among such new introductions was the sugar-cane, of which Cortés himself established two plantations at Izcalpan.24 Others arose simultaneously or in quick succession, and in 1553 sugar formed an article of exportation to Spain and Peru. The cultivation centred in the intendencias of Guanajuato, Guadalajara, Valladolid, Puebla, Mexico, and Vera Cruz, but on the coast this industry was of little importance. Encouraged by the crown on different occasions,25 and especially by a reduction of the tithes to four per cent, a more effectual impulse was given toward the close of the eighteenth century by the failure of the crops in other countries, and the uprising of the negroes at Santo Domingo. Nevertheless the production increased less than might have been expected, and after

22 See Native Races, ii. 359-60, this series.

23 For details about the production of cacao and vanilla, see Humboldt, Essai Pol., ii. 435-43; Alzate, Diario, 26-9.

21 Memorial in Pacheco and Cárdenas, Col. Doc., xii. 279. See also, Ternaux-Compans, Voy., série i. tom. x. 320, 333; Cortés, Escritos Sueltos, 378. 25 Among others by a law of February 27, 1796, allowing the free establishment of sugar refineries. Disposiciones Varias, i. 100.

supplying the home consumption there remained in 1803 only 125,000 quintals for export. The restriction on the sale of liquors made from maguey was applied also to those manufactured from sugar, the most common of which was generally known as aguardiente. The prohibitions could not, however, be effectually carried out, and when investigation had revealed the comparatively limited consumption of the article introduced from Spain, its free manufacture was allowed in 1796 under certain regulations.26

27

Of European cereals only wheat was raised to any extent, and although in different parts of the cordillera the climate was extremely propitious, the want of moisture, which could be supplied only by irrigation, would frequently check its cultivation. This defect was at an early time recognized by the crown, and in 1612 an order was issued that no cattle should be allowed on irrigated land suitable for raising wheat. 23 Notwithstanding this drawback the yield exceeded the average returns obtained in Europe, being in some instances as high as seventy or eighty fold.20

One of the different kinds, cultivated chiefly in the neighborhood of Puebla and called trigo blanquillo,50 was remarkable for its abundant yield. For some unknown reason the medical board declared it to be injurious to the health, and a decree of the viceroy and audiencia, of May 4, 1677, ordered the consumption of the stock on hand within a limited time, and forbade its cultivation under severe penalties. During several years the order was in force, but when a famine.

26 The viceroy's edict was of December 9, 1796, Disposiciones Varias, i. 102, iii. 84-96; Cedulario, MS., iii. 169-76. Cédulas bearing on the prohibition had been issued August 6, 1747, July 15, 1749, and March 24, 1753. Ordenes de la Corona, MS., i. 45-50; Reales Cédulas, MS., ii. 223-4.

27 For an account of its introduction, see Hist. Mex., ii. 132-3, this series. 28 In 1624 the law was repealed. Recop. de Ind., ii. 42. Other laws also fostering the cultivation of wheat are given in Cedulario, MS., iii. 63; Intendentes, Real Ordenanza, 73-4.

29 The average yield in New Spain was 25 to 30 fold. Humboldt, Essai Pol., ii. 385-6.

30 Literally meaning white wheat.

31

Montemayor, Autos, 60–1; Sigüenza y Góngora, Carta, MS., 38.

threatened Mexico, Viceroy Galve revoked it in 1692, and after that time it was again cultivated. It is impossible to form reliable estimates of the total amount of wheat or flour produced and consumed, both on account of the lack of statistics and the mixed character of the population, a great part of which lived exclusively upon maize.

During the first half of the sixteenth century one of the chief articles of food was the plantain, though there is no evidence in support of Humboldt's conjecture that certain species of the Musa Paradisaica are indigenous to America.32 After its introduction from the East Indies, its rapid growth and the variety of purposes for which it could be used brought it into general favor throughout New Spain. To this day it forms a staple article of food throughout tropical America, while its juice, when fermented, affords a palatable drink. The dried and powdered fruit resembles the arrow root; the leaves of young plants were used for medicinal purposes, while the fibres were made into textile fabrics, those of the outer stem in certain varieties being strong enough for the manufacture of cordage, while from the inner fibres a garment can be made light enough to be contained in the hollow of the hand.

In addition to these products early experiments were made in the cultivation of silk, olives, and the grape, all of which were encouraged by Cortés, who had himself plantations of mulberry-trees at Yauhtepec, Tetecla, and other places.33 At first sericulture made fair progress,34 but subsequently the competition arising from the Manila trade, and the partiality in favor of the product of Spanish looms, caused the plantations and factories, which were chiefly in Puebla

32 Essai Pol,, ii. 359-62.

33 Some authors, following Herrera, attribute the introduction of the silkworm to the oidor Delgadillo, but it was more probably due to Cortés. See Alaman, Disert., i. 263-4, 1st app. 28; ii. 67-8.

34 A law of 1548 allowed all the inhabitants in the district of Puebla to apply themselves to this industry without any restriction. Recop. de Ind., ii.