only again to relapse into its former state, as soon as peace was concluded. The export of raw cotton, though favored by exemption from duties and customs, never acquired any commercial importance, and was inconsiderable compared with that of the United States.

59

58

Though at an early date the raising of flax and hemp was encouraged, little progress was made for more than two centuries. In 1777 and later, numerous orders were issued to the viceroys, urging their cultivation and manufacture,60 and in the same year twelve experts were sent from Spain to give practical instruction. Privileges were also granted to persons willing to engage in this industry; but all efforts were fruitless, despite the large amounts of money spent in experiments, and finally the effort was abandoned.62

pur

In addition to the products already mentioned, others were raised in New Spain of less importance, though still of value for domestic or commercial poses. To the former class belong the manioc, yam, potato, the different kinds of pepper, or chile, a necessary ingredient in the national dish, tortillas de maiz, and manifold varieties of fruit. Of the latter, mention will be made later.

After the Spanish dominion was established, and strange plants and animals introduced, aboriginal occupations were placed more and more in the background. This was apparently the case with the fisheries, a well developed industry among the Aztecs, but little encouraged since the conquest.

58 Amounting only to about 6,000 quintals at the beginning of the present century.

5 Since 1545. Recop. de Ind., ii. 67.

60 From January 12, 1777, till May 9, 1795, ten decrees were issued, all for this purpose. Zamora, Bib. Leg. Ult., iv. 189; Beleña, Recop., i. pt. iii. 219-20.

61 Zamora, Intendentes, Real Ord., 71-2.

G2 More than $100,000 had been spent by the crown. See also on this subject, Revilla Gigedo, Instruc., 98–100; Id., Bandos, no. 39; Cancelada, Ruina, 33-4.

63 See Native Races, ii. 352-3, this series.

NATIVE INGENUITY.

64

619

The pearl fisheries, however, were an exception, and from an early date attracted the attention of the crown and its vassals. A number of laws were issued for their regulation, and for some time they attracted many explorers to the gulf of California; but as this belongs to another division of my work, I shall speak of it elsewhere.65

66

The skill of the natives in certain branches of manufactures created astonishment even among the Spaniards, though they were little inclined to recognize any such ability. No less surprise was caused among the Aztecs by the first examples of European skill in manufactures, not so much on account of their workmanship, as the facility with which they were produced. They immediately discerned the advantages which they could derive from their European masters, and seized eagerly the opportunity, whenever it offered. Instances have already been related, among which may be mentioned the manner in which they contrived to learn the weaving of a certain kind of cloth and the making of saddles. Soon after the conquest such occupations as those of carpenter, bricklayer, shoemaker, and tailor, fell into their hands, and they not only imitated the Spanish artisans, but exhibited some ingenuity as inventors. Occasionally, however, their enterprising spirit would lead them astray. Of this a rather humorous instance has been recorded by an early chronicler, who relates that an Indian tailor on observing in a procession a man dressed in the sambenito, the badge worn by those sentenced by the inquisition, supposed it to be a new kind of garment to be used in church festivals. A few days later he surprised the Spaniards by offering a number for sale, until the laughter which he excited made him aware of his mistake.

64 Recop. de Ind., ii. 96–106.

65 In Hist. North. Mex. States, vol. ii., this series. G6 See Hist. Mex., ii. 172, this series.

Long before the conquest the Indians had been experts in the manufacture of earthenware and pottery, numerous specimens of which are found throughout the country. Under Spanish rule the variety of design was greatly increased and a larger field was opened to them. They also learned the fabrication of glass, and as this industry gradually developed, several factories arose, chiefly at Puebla, where forty-six establishments for the making of glass and pottery were in a flourishing condition in 1793. Subsequently a decline took place, and in the beginning of this century the number was reduced to eighteen.

The fabrications of iron never made any notable progress in New Spain, and the iron implements in use came almost exclusively from the mother country. It was only when communication with the old world was interrupted or difficult that an impulse was given to this branch of industry.7

There were, however, other branches in which the natives excelled the most skilful European artisans, and chief among them was the manufacture of cochineal and indigo. Both were produced mainly in Oajaca; but owing to failures of the crop and the oppressive policy of the government, the indigo trade declined considerably, and toward the close of the eighteenth century the yield was not enough for home consumption, and the want was supplied by importations from Guatemala.

63

Cochineal long maintained its place as one of the leading exports of new Spain, its production being encouraged by the crown from the earliest days. It

70

67 Revilla Gigedo, Instruc., 92, attributes the small progress of the iron industry to the unwillingness of the merchants to introduce the instruments and machinery required for the production of that metal. Estalla, xxvii. 46, speaks of some excellent work in steel, manufactured at Puebla, but this is rather doubtful.

68 A law of 1563 prohibited the employment of Indians in the cultivation on the ground that it was injurious to their health. Recop. de Ind., ii. 307-8. The second Revilla Gigedo estimated the yearly production in 1794, at 1500 arrobas. Instruc., 100. For details as to its cultivation see Alzate, Diario Lit., 50-2.

70 Cochineal was exempted from tithes. Ordenes de la Corona, MS., iii.

was procured entirely by the natives, and efforts were made to protect them from the usual extortions of the Spaniards, though apparently with little avail, as the yield decreased and finally was almost confined to the districts of Oajaca." Nevertheless at the beginning of the present century the exports from Vera Cruz represented about $2,000,000. A few years previously this industry had occupied from twentyfive to thirty thousand persons, but the profits were apparently moderate."

But the skill of the Aztecs in producing featherwork excited the most remark. Marvellous stories were related by the first Europeans who saw specimens of this art, and the choicest patterns were deemed worthy to be offered to the sovereign. The novelty soon lost its charm, however, and an industry which in aboriginal times had been fostered and developed with the utmost care, was neglected by the representatives of civilized Europe," until it lost all its importance for practical purposes, and merely served to satisfy occasional curiosity. A worse fate befell the manufacture of jewelry, which had attained the highest perfection among the Aztecs, whose skill was considered as unrivalled by Europeans. Though it was well known that they possessed the knowledge of working the metal in certain forms absolutely unknown in Europe, when in 1507 some mining regulations

75

185-7; Alaman, Mej., i. 103. A decree of 1597, later repeated, directed the viceroy to stimulate its production, and if necessary to compel the Indians to labor at this industry. Recop. de Ind., ii. 60. See also for other instructions bearing on the subject, Id., ii. 67, 179, 350-1, 573; iii. 406, 513.

71 Formerly cochineal was produced also in Guadalajara, Puebla, and Yucutan.

72 Authorities differ essentially about the value. Revilla Gigedo, Instruccion, 102, gives in 1793 the annual yield at 23,600 arrobas, representing at the price computed by Humboldt, $1,770,000. The latter authority gives the figures of $3,368,557 and $2,238,673 for 1802 and 1803 respectively. Essai Pol., ii. 457. Alaman, Mej., i. 103, estimates the annual yield for that time at $1,200,000, and says that formerly its value amounted to $3,000,000. According to Revilla Gigedo only nine per cent on the capital in

73

vested.

See Native Races, ii. 488–90, for a description of this art in Aztec times; also Denis, Arte Plumaria, 1 et seq.

75 See also Native Races, ii. 475-82.

76

were issued in Mexico, severe penalties forbade all persons interested in or connected with mining to employ native jewellers for making ornaments either of gold or silver. Thus European designs and methods prevailed, and although the manufacture of jewelry was extensively pursued, the style led in another direction, and processes which had only been known to the native workmen were irretrievably lost.

All jewellers were obliged to have their establishments in a certain street, and were forbidden to work any metal unless the payment of the king's fifth had been proved; nor were they allowed to employ coined gold or silver. Since early times they had been incorporated as a guild, with a patron-saint of their own, and subject to certain regulations or statutes." Nevertheless there is no doubt that contraband trading was carried on in this branch as in most others, and therefore some addition must be made to the official returns, which indicate for the beginning of this century an average value of $270,000 for the gold and silver manufactured every year. 78

The question has often been brought forward whether the agricultural and industrial resources of New Spain were sufficient to place her on an independent footing, and the answer has frequently been based on the condition of the country at the close of the eighteenth century. The propriety of selecting that epoch is at least doubtful, considering the character and influence of the Spanish dominion during the preceding three hundred years. Allusion has often been made to the policy of the government toward New Spain in all affairs where the interest of

76 Loss of all property and perpetual banishment from New Spain. Libro de Cabildo, MS., 198.

"Compiled by Viceroy Cadereita in 1638, and enlarged in 1701 by the Count of Moctesuma. They are given in the Ordenanzas del Nobilissimo Arte de la Plateria, Mexico, 1715, 10 folios, and contain in 35 articles the regulations for the government of the guild, together with instructions for certain technicalities. In 1733 and 1748 additional rules were issued in Spain. Reales Cédulas, MS., ii. 99-104.

78 The total consumption from 1798 till 1802 was 1,926 marks of gold and 134,024 of silver.