With regard to the title of the book he alleges reasons for his selection of it. As mariners direct their course across the ocean by observing the polar star, so may his readers, he hopes, be guided through the intricacies of commerce by the perusal of his work; and as the needle by pointing to the same quarter instructs the mariner, so may his book instruct the readers of it. The edition contains a curious wood-cut frontispiece representing in the upper portion 'D. Ferdinandus & Elisabet' enthroned on the left, and 'D. Carolus II. & Regina Mater' on the right, supported by two columns on either side. In niches between the pairs of columns are full-length figures of 'Colon' and "Cortés. A representation of the ocean with galleons sailing on it occupies the center. Numerous scrolls with Latin inscriptions are scattered on the wood-cut. In 1702 this work was 'Made English by Capt. John Stevens,' who added 'Two Compleat Lists: One of the Goods Transported out of Europe to the Spanish West-Indies, the other of commodities brought from those Parts into Europe.' A comprehensive history of the Philippine trade is to be found in Extracto Historial Del Expediente Que Pende En El Consejo Real, Y Supremo De Las Indias, A Instancia De La Ciudad De Manila, Y Demás De Las Islas Philipinas, published in Madrid by order of the king in 1736, and containing 324 folios. This work comprises a large number of royal and other official documents, from early times, bearing upon commerce between the Philippine Islands and China and New Spain. The injury done to Spanish commerce by the introduction of Chinese silk fabrics into Acapulco, is especially entered into, and the restrictions which were imposed upon such articles induced the king, on the representations of Manila merchants, to cause a complete investigation to be made. Among modern authorities on the commerce of New Spain, Lerdo de Tejada may be mentioned as one conspicuous for research and with a correct judgment of causes and effects. His Apuntes Historicos De La Heróica Ciudad de Vera-Cruz was published in Mexico in 1850, and besides furnishing a general review of commerce from the conquest until after the independence, contains a historical sketch of events from the history of Columbus, and a description of Vera Cruz and the port of San Juan de Ulúa. In 1853 Lerdo de Tejada published another work on Mexico, entitled Commercio Esterior de Mexico, which contains tabular forms exhibiting the number of vessels entering Mexican ports during the period from 1728 to 1795, besides other information. The writings of this author are an important addition to the literature of Mexico.

The researches of Humboldt which embrace commercial matters may be considered defective and occasionally inaccurate. Embracing in his calculations the commerce of all the Spanish American colonies, and basing them more particularly upon the exports of the precious metals, his deductions are too general to afford information in detail relative to the earlier trade of New Spain. From the commencement of free trade, however, he has made valua ble calculations and supplied figures setting forth the values of exports and imports, with comparative tables exhibiting the increase of commerce since the removal of the restrictions. Essai Polit., ii. 733–8. In his description of the highways and roads of Mexico he shows excellent observation and supplies good suggestions for improvement.

Correo Mercantil de España y sus Indias, Madrid, 1792-4, in 4 vols.

RICHARD, ANDERSON, AND MACPHERSON.

647

This work is a commercial monthly periodical, and contains information upon the commerce of Spain and her western colonies, together with the condition of her trade with the principal cities of Europe. Prices-current, rates of exchange, and shipping business appear regularly in the volumes. The most important information which it affords with regard to Mexico is that relating to the freedom of the ports, and the shipping business at Vera Cruz. Mention is also made of the agricultural condition of various parts of the country, and of the culture of certain valuable productions. The rapid development of commerce had opened a new literary field which demanded a special treatment not unworthy of the highest order of ability. Bishop Huet had in common with other learned investigators given a dissertation on the trade of the ancients, in which the middle ages found an exponent in Ioannis Angelii a Werdenhagen de Rebuspublicis Hanseaticis Tractatus; but these failed to meet the wants of the practical merchant. The well arranged maritime history of Morisot was more to his taste, but it was insufficient, and had to yield to Richard, Traité Général du Commerce. A still more practical work, and the most valuable so far issued, is An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, London, 1764, 2 vols, 4to, by Adam Anderson, a clerk of the South Sea Company for above forty years. Its success caused the issue of a new edition in 1787, enlarged to four volumes quarto, republished in 1801. Beginning with the carliest records of the Jews and Greeks, the development of industrial arts and sciences is reviewed in connection with trade, migration, and colonization, at first by centuries, but soon year by year. Legislative measures, finance, treaties, naval operations, and other projects affecting trade are also included. The first volume closes with the fifteenth century; the second with the seventeenth; the third with 1762; the latter containing to a great extent the personal observations of the author while connected with mercantile affairs. The fourth volume is a continuation by the publishers for the period 1762-88, bristling with details and statistics. The work is evidently the result of years of labor, and research into obscure as well as standard authorities. The earlier period indicates less judgment and completeness, but afterward it improves greatly, and shows more originality. The want of critical skill is a serious fault, and objections may be made to the abundance of statistical and unessential details in the text, and to the compilatory form, combined with a stilted, prosy style. England is of course the main object of the work, particularly in the later portions, wherein the spirit of national prejudice becomes rather glaring.

The success of Anderson's work, perhaps, rather than its faults, induced David Macpherson in 1805 to issue the Annals of Commerce, Manufactures, Fisheries, and Navigation, 4 vols, 4to, wherein he claims to present a complete revision of the former. He recognizes the care bestowed by Anderson upon the period after the discovery of America, and presumes only to prune it of cumbrous details and odd words, adding his own comments in notes; but the earlier period he found it necessary to rewrite. Somewhat over two volumes are devoted to the revision, and the remainder to a history of the last forty years, formed entirely by himself from official papers and public reports, and ignoring altogether the continuation by the publishers of the original work.

If Macpherson's endeavor to build up a reputation upon an esteemed standard work does not exactly inspire confidence, yet it must be admitted that the material he offers is not without value, and that his pruning has been of use; but other expected improvements of method and of style are by no means apparent. Altogether it remains a question whether the result warranted so bulky an issue.

The number of books on trade and industries increased rapidly in various forms, including not only works on special branches, but cyclopedias, as McCulloch's, and the Dictionnaire du Commercant; periodical reviews, as Annuaire de Commerce Maritime; and general statistical reviews, as Dieterici, Statistics of the Zollverein. One of the most thorough books of the latter class, comprising the varied phases of industries and resources of every country is, John Macgregor's Commercial Statistics. London, 1844-50, 5 vols, 4to. As secretary to the English board of trade, of extensive travel, and intimate with the leading men and institutions of more than one country, he had every facility for obtaining the necessary material and aid for his work, and he has certainly shown his ability to make good use thereof. A sketch of physical geography precedes the review of resources and industries for each country, and a series of commercial treatises is appended.

The importance of the New World, and the want perceptible in even its most complete histories of a statistical report on the growth of the various states, induced Macgregor to publish a special, ponderous set on The Progress of America. London, 1847, 2 vols, 4to. In order to present a thorough and satisfactory work he added historic and geographic material to the industrial reviews which form the main object. The United States, as the most important section, occupies the whole of volume II, forming one third of the whole text, while the ten books of volume I are pretty evenly distributed. The first book gives a review of the discovery, conquest, and settlement of America in general; IV-VI cover Mexico and Central America; and the remainder, South America, the Antilles, and the British possessions, including a review of English trade generally with the new world. Macgregor published several other works on this subject, chiefly relating to America.

In contrast to the practical English treatises on commerce we now turn to a work which in devoting itself to the development of trade with distant regions, ventured upon the innovation of allying philosophy and speculative thought to so material a subject. But it was the era of revolution, and before the author lay the flattering hope of becoming another Thucydides, the leader in a new literary field. Its fulfilment lies before us in the Histoire Philosophique et Politique des Établissemens et du Commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes; par Guillaume Thomas Raynal; first issued at Genève, 1780, in 5 vols, 4to, and 10 vols, 8vo. The revised edition, Paris, 1820-1, was increased to 12 vols, 8vo, from the author's manuscripts, and from the review by Penchet on the progress of the colonies since Raynal's time. It opens with the Portuguese discovery of the sea route to the East Indies, and proceeds with the operations of other nations and the growth of trade in this region, including Africa and China. In livre VI is related the discovery of America, the conquest of Mexico, and the trade resources of New Spain, and in the following parts the progress of conquest and commerce in other

portions of America, particularly in the West Indies and the United States. In the nineteenth livre, forming volume X, Raynal concludes his own writing with a review of the development of institutions, moral and social, political and industrial, in both hemispheres, and their influence upon culture.

The departure implied in this work had more than a literary significance; it meant a warfare against social intolerance; and this required courage, particularly in a man moving in the supercilious, frivolous circles open to Raynal. It required also ability to face the learned hosts before him; and it demanded both qualities to undertake researches for so varied a field. The result was manifested alike by the applause of philosophers and practical men, and by the condemnation of the church and the government, which forced him into exile. An acknowledgment of its beauties was conveyed in the very charge that Diderot's hand was manifest therein; but there is no doubt that, whatever the work may owe to his advice, the elaboration is entirely by Raynal. It exhibits a not uneven form, and a sustained nobility of thought and style, which is never obscure, and always attractive. When principles, when human rights are the theme, then alone he breaks somewhat the bounds of calm review, and rising into the dramatic he discloses the Voltairian influence which has encompassed him, and shows himself the champion also of the negro slave.

Trained a Jesuit and later made an abbé, Raynal had amid his multifarious studies imbibed the teachings of Montaigne and Bayle. Becoming a writer from choice as much as from necessity, he at once attracted the attention of critics by the Histoire du Stathoudérat, wherein he rose as one of the first to combat the prejudice of the age against trade as a profession, to point out its glories in the Queen of the Adriatic, in the Medici family, and to demonstrate its influence and power in Holland, in raising a downtrodden people to a leading nation, while for England it was about to create empires. The researches for this subject, and the duties in editing for Le Mercure, chained him more and more to commercial interests, while the companionship of Rousseau and kindred spirits raised him above the rank of mere narrator, and instilled a philosophic spirit which soon evolved the Histoire Philosophique. Before fleeing from Paris to Genoa he had three copies of it printed, to be submitted to friends and critics for suggestions and improvements. The perfecting process occupied him after its publication till his death in 1796, at the age of about 83. England showed her appreciation of the work by a translation, in 1783, which was several times republished. Raynal left among other notes a Histoire Philosophique, etc., des établissements dans l'Afrique Septentrionale, which Penchet enlarged and issued in 1826, in 2 vols. 8vo; and which should form a part of the greater work.

A fuller list of authorities consulted are the following: Ordenes de la Corona, MS., iii. 45-8; vi. 34, 64-5, 79-85; Cedulario, MS., i. 155-6, 246-8; iii. 62-3, 176; Cogollvdo, Hist. Yuc., 548-51; Calle, Mem. y Not., 36-8, 160-1, 183; Azanza, Ynstruccion, MS., 71-5, 112-14, 141–57; Villa-Señor, Theatro, i. 49-50; Revilla Gigedo, Instruc., MS., i. 119-44, 321-64; ii. 354-60, 486-7; Id., Bandos, nos. xv. xix. xli.-lxxi.; Puga, Cedulario, 10, 113-14, 175-6, 195-6; Vireyes de Mex., Instruc., MS., 5; Monumentos Domin. Esp., MS., 92, 107-8; Concilio Prov. Mex., MS., i. 108-17, 341-60; Providencias

Reales, MS., 30-49, 89, 102-5, 212-14, 244-7, 288-90; Pacheco and Cárdenas, Col. Doc., v. 421; vi. 298-314, 343; xii. 142-51; xiii. 200-1; Reales Ordenes, iii. 73-432; iv. 1-56, 377-9; vi. 88-116; viii. 190-1, 295–328; x. 315–16; Panes, Extension V. Cruz, MS., 211-61; Ejídos de Mexico, MS., 78; Col. Doc. Inéd., xxi. 467-9, 488-9, 502-4; Branciforte, Instruc., MS., 9-10; Linares, Instruc., MS., 8-12; Philipinas, Exto. Ilist. Comer., 15-29, 123-328; Payno, Rentas Generales, pp. vii.-x. 206-311; Recop. de Indias, i. ii. iii., passim; Reales, Cédulas, MS., i. 83-8, 100, 172; ii. 44-50, 123-30; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., iii. 556; Montemayor, Svmarios, 35, 125-49; Villarroel, Justa Repulsa, MS., 1-216; Certificacion de las Mercedes, MS., 90-1; Cancelada, Ruina de N. Esp., 14, passim; Robles, Diario, i. ii., passim; America, Descrip., MS., 141– 205, 162-3; Ternaux-Compans, série i. tom. x. 451-70; série ii. tom. v. 191-2, 237-44, 329; Guijo, i., passim; Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, ii. 17, 23-31; iii. 325-38; iv. 18; ix. 89; Id., 3ra ep. i. 254-5, 788-94; Rivera, Hist. Jalapa, i. 144, 184-6; Id., Gobernantes de Mex., i. 99, 137, 140, passim; Gaz. Mex., i. ii. iii., passion; iv. 410, 428-9; v. 10 et seq.; vi., passim; ix., 10-42, 161-300; x. 125, 354-78; xi. 39, 97 et seq.; xii.-xiv., passin; Disposiciones Varias, MS., i. 18-40, 77; ii. 1-4; iii. 42-5, 97; Antunez, Mem. Comercio, 21-27, 36– 330; Mayer's Mex. Aztec, 230, 249-50, 260-74; ii. 98; Correo Merc. Esp., i. 50-1; ii. 6, 15, 96-7, 143-4; iii. 5, 11-12, 35–7; iv. 332-3, 445, 598, 621-2; Beleña, Recop., i. 111 et seq.; ii. 64, 71–86, 153-62; Noticioso Gen., 17 Nov. 1817, 2-3; Lerdo de Tejada, Comercio Est., 12-15, passim; Sanchez, Pueb. Sagrad. Prof., 41-63; Barbachano, Mem. Camp., 12-13; Ward's Mex., i. 63, 130-32; ii. 10, 15, 49; Arrillaga, Recop. 1829, 378-428, 534-92; Id., Informe, 12; Zamora, Bib. Leg. Vet., ii. 432, 528-33; v. 21-35, 306-13, 394; Calvo, Annales Hist., i. 131; ii. 205–9; Orozco y Berra, Cartog. Mex., 180-1; Viagero Universal, xxvii. 5, 67, 206-12, 243-6; Salmon's Modern Hist., iii. 216-19; Wapp, Mex. and Cent. Am., 95-116; West Indies, Geog. and Hist., 136–7; Pike's Exploratory Trav., 375-6; Ortez, Yrades Mex., 376-7; Id., Resumen Estad., 79-86; Walton's Spanish Colonies, ii. 174; Id., Exposé, 428; Diario Mex., i. 19-20, 40, 250-1, 348; ii. 99-100; iv. 130, 219, 275-87; v. 1-2, 214, 274-86; vi. 344; vii. 87-94, 262; viii. 40, 136, 531-3; x. 624; xi. 647-50; xii. 483; Mex. Legisl. Mej., 1851, 231-4; Spanish Empire in Am., 118-26, 279305; Alaman, Hist. Mej., i. 28 et seq.; iii. 32-38; Willie, Noticia Hac., 2, 9-19; Cortez, Diario Exp. 1820, i. 346; iii. 6, 11-12; iv. 291; Método para despachar Galeon Felipinas, i. 259; Pap. Var., xxxi. 3; li. 3; clxiv. 97-104, 134; clxxxvi. 15-17; ccxv. 3; Zamacois, Hist. Mej., v. 413 et seq.; vi. 130, 180; vii. 149; x. 1290; Mora, Revue Mex., 182-4, 214-41, 387; Id., Obras Sueltos, i. 90-2; Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 15, 120, 231, 243; ii. 425, 449, 663778, 826, 849-66; Id., Tablas Estad., MS., 42-6; Id., Versuch, iv. 256-430; v. 116-20; Id., New Spain, iv. 138, 281, 363–9; Dicc. Univ., i. 53; v. 206–14; viii. 624-8, 666-7; x. 731-2, 812-14, 1014-25; Bustamante, Cuad. Hist., iv. 67-76; Pinkerton's Modern Geog., iii. 211-12, 224-9; Id., Coll. Voy., v. 470-81, 490-4; xiii. 858-9; Young's Hist. Mex., 62; Carranza, Geog. Descrip., 12-17, 23; Burney's Discov. South Sea, ii. 346-9; Dillon's Hist. Mex., 109-10; Larenaudière, Mex. et Guat. 259-64; Dublan y Lozano, Leg. Mex., i. 36, 67; Ogilby's America, 283; Democratic Review, i. 268; De Bercy, L'Europe, i. 141-3; Langsdorff, Voy., ii. 208; El Tiempo, 199; Palajox y Mendoza, Venerab. Señor, 4, 5; Fonseca y Urrutia, Real Hac., i. 313 et seq.; Frisch, Staaten von Mex., 5; Galvan, Tierras, 47-8; Lacunza, Discursos Ilist., xxxvi. 529; Ocios Espan. Emigrad., vi. 340; Bourbourg, L'Isthme Teh., S; Conder's Mex. and Guat., 51, 138; Nueva Espania, Acuerdos, MS., 260-1; Gazeta, Gob. Mex., 122 et seq.; Guthrie's Univ. Geog., i. 395; Alvaren, Estudios, iii. 437; Burke's Europ. Settle., i. 232-8; Guia de Hac., ii. 69-108; Wilson's Mex., 19-20; Winterbotham's Hist. of U. S., iv. 112-13; Guerra, Rev. N. Esp., i. 177–8; ii. 625-9; Macpherson's Annals of Com., i. 674-7; iii. 402; Diario Mercantil de Vera Cruz, 503-620; Müller, Reisen in Mex., iii. 437-44, 720-37; Squier's NSS., xxii. 84; Zavala, Rev. Mex., 27-67; Linage's Spanish Rule of Trade, 227, 266-7; Bidwell's Panamá, 68, 72.