Modern Europe: To 1815

American ancient aristocratic Aristotle army Austria Austrian became Bonaparte British called Calvin Calvinists Catherine Catholic Charles Christian church civil classical clerical colonies crown culture death Descartes died doctrine Dutch Dutch Republic early economic eighteenth century emperor empire England English Enlightenment essay Europe European feudal Florence foreign France Frederick French Revolution German Greek Hapsburg Henry historians Huguenots Humanists ideas imperial Italian Italy Jacobins Jansenists king land later Louis XIV Luther Lutheran medieval merchants military minister modern Montesquieu Napoleon nobility nobles painting papacy Paris parlements Parliament peace peasants Peter Peter Gay Petrarch Philip philosophes political pope princes Protestant provinces Puritan radical rebellion Reformation reign religion religious remained Renaissance Republic revolutionary Roman Rome royal rulers Russia sans-culottes seventeenth century sixteenth century social society Spain Spanish Sweden taxes territories third estate took trade troops Voltaire William wrote