their frequent incursions into the neighbouring states occasioned their boundaries to be in constant fluctuation.

The descendants of Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar, occupied a part of Arabia Deserta, eastward of Moab and Midian, and bounded on the north by Ammon; but how far they extended southward and eastward it is impossible to determine. It may however be presumed, from an assertion of Moses, that their territory reached from Havilah, which was situated near the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates, to Shur, on the Isthmus of Suez. Thence they are said to have spread themselves over the greatest part of Arabia; in consequence of which Josephus styles their progenitor the founder of the Arabian nation.

SECT. II.

The Religion, Government, Customs, Learning, Arts, and Commerce, of the Jews.

HE religion of the Jews, though formerly

T clouded with mysterious ceremonies, and

now totally eclipsed by the radiance of the Gospel, must ever be considered as an object of veneration, since it led men to the knowledge and worship of the true God. Their laws*

As the size of "The new Universal History" precludes the recital of these laws, and the volume of Holy Writ contains a full, clear, and satisfactory account of them, the reader may satisfy his curiosity in every particu lar by referring to the Book of Leviticus.

were

were admirably adapted to honour their Creator, and to render themselves completely happy; their sacrifices were at once calculated to remind them of their failings, and to render them more observant of those duties which were binding on them as rational creatures; and even their most trivial ceremonies were replete with instruction, or typical of the future gracious designs of the Almighty.

The Jewish government has been justly distinguished from that of all other nations by the name of Theocracy, as being under the immediate direction of God. It must indeed be acknowledged that this theocracy varied, iu some degree, under Moses, Joshua, the judges, kings, and high-priests; yet the Deity was considered as the sole dictator of every important transaction, the author of each beneficial institution, and the supreme monarch of the Israelites.

Their customs, both civil and religious, were chiefly founded upon their laws; and will consequently be found in the same illustrative narration. Some of the most particular, however, are selected for the gratification of the curious reader.

The rite of circumcision was always accompanied with great feasting, and other demonstrations of joy. At this time the child was named in the presence of the company; after which the master of the house took a cupful of wine, and blessing his Creator, sipped a little of it, and passed it round to his friends; this was called the blessing of the wine. He then commenced the blessing of the bread, and distributed it in a similar manner; and when the guests had

done

done eating he solemnly returned thanks to God, and concluded the feast with another cup of wine, which was styled the blessing of plenty. Whether they sat or lay in a reclined posture at their repasts is a controversy of small importance the former custom seems to have prevailed before the captivity; but the latter was certainly adopted at the time of our Saviour's institution of the holy sacrament.

Marriage does not appear to have been accompanied with any religious ceremony, such as going to the temple, offering sacrifices, or requiring the benediction of a priest. When a contract was formed by the parents and relations on both sides, the bridegroom was introduced to his bride, a solemn agreement was signed before witnesses, and the bride, after some time, was sent to her new habitation, with songs, dances, and the melody of various musical in

struments.

Their diet, except on festivals, seems to have been extremely plain; for Boaz, a man of considerable property, complimented Ruth with eating of the same bread, drinking of the same water, and dipping her morsel in vinegar with him. The present of victuals brought to David, while he laboured under the persecution of Saul, consisted of bread, raisins, parched corn, a few sheep, and two bottles of wine. Honey was esteeined a peculiar delicacy; and the milk of the goats and the fleece of the flocks were pronounced, by the wise man, sufficient for food and raiment, both for the master and his family.

Their diversions seem to have consisted chiefly in social repasts, music, and dancing. Games

were

were never introduced into their commonwealth; but the Scripture frequently expresses the simplicity of their happy lives by sitting, and eating, and driking, every one under his vine and beneath his fig-tree. Music was evidently dear to them, as the high praises of their Creator were performed in concert with the sound of various instruments; and dancing was frequently mingled with their solemn acknowledgement of any signal blessing. Thus king David is said to have danced before the ark and the tribes are exhorted, in the hundred and fiftieth psalm, to praise God with the timbrel and dance.

Their high places were of two sorts: those where they burned incense and offered sacrifices to the true God; and those where they committed various abominable idolatries. Both these became so common and universal that few kings had the courage to destroy the latter, notwithstanding the repeated admonitions of the holy prophets.

The same spirit of dissipation, which induced the Israelites to direct their worship to dumb idols, led them gradually into the practice of divination and necromancy, though the law of Moses expressly enjoined that such persons should be put to death.

High titles were unknown among them, unless those which implied some office; as general, treasurer, or recorder. They valued themselves greatly upon their genealogies; and some regard was likewise had to the distinction of tribes or families, as to that of Judah, to which the sceptre was promised; to that of Ephraim, out of respect to Joseph's memory; and to those of

the priests and Levites, upon a religious account. The utmost respect was shown to the heads and fathers of every tribe, and ancient men of all descriptions were considered as objects of veneration.

Their houses were commonly plain, low, and flat, suitable to the climate. Chimnies, sashes, or casements were needless, where they were obliged to study coolness; and for the same reason tapestry was of no use but to sit, eat, or sleep upon.

Their industry and frugality, together with the wholesome temperature of their climate, were effectual preventives against many of those diseases which, in later ages, have been ushered into the world by sloth and luxury. Hence we read of but few distempers that were prevalent among them, and still less physicians, except such as are now known by the name of

surgeons.

Their mourning, for the death of any near relation, or for any melancholy accident, was expressed by rending their garments, tearing their hair, heaping dirt or ashes upon their heads, wearing sackcloth next the skin, and lying upon the bare ground.

Their funeral ceremonies were equally mournful. As soon as a person was dead, all the nearest relatives assembled at his house in their mourning habit, and sat down upon the ground in silence, while other apartments echoed with the lamentations of hired mourners, and the sound of such instruments as were deemed suitable to the occasion.

In the mean time, proper persons were appointed to prepare the defunct for interment, either by embalming him or washing his body, VOL. II.

F

and